CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study Argument,
according to Olsen & Huckin (1991:72) is “simply a claim that something
should be believed or done, plus proof or good reasons for believing or doing
it. In the same sense, Buscemi (2002:509) states “argument is the defense of an
opinion or of a position of an issue that is supported by concrete evidence and
that is presented logically”. However, the purpose of using argument may be different
depending on speaker’s or writer’s intention. There are five theories usually
used to analyse argument: Toulmin argument, Aristotle’s three appeals, Rogerian
argument, Induction and Narration. Yet, this study applies two theories, that
is, Toulmin argument and Aristotle’s three appeals.
A contemporary philosopher,
Stephen Toulmin, proposes a theory of argument known as Toulmin model.
According to Crusius & Channel (2003:53), “this model analyzes the logic of
any argument, whether written or spoken; and will also find it useful in
examining the logic of arguments as you draft and revise them”. However, this
model is limited to the analysis of logic. Generally, the elements of Toulmin
model are data, warrant, claim, backing, qualifiers, and rebuttal (These
elements will be discussed in more detailed in Chapter 2). These elements can
be simplified into major elements and additional elements. The major elements
include data, claim, and warrant; whereas additional elements include backing,
qualifiers and rebuttal. However, Hairston (1986:335) suggests that “not all elements
need to be present in every argument” as probably found in the results of this
study.
Dealing with argument, Dietsch
(2003:243) states that Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, proposes three kinds
of appeals used in argument: logical, ethical, and emotional appeal. Logical
appeals are arguments based on the structure of realty, such as example,
illustration, model, analogy, and metaphor. Ethical appeals are arguments
including the writer’s personal experience, knowledge of the subject, and awareness
of the audience’s values. Finally, emotional appeals are arguments including
the use of language with vivid pictures and metaphors to evoke the audience’s
emotion (Connor & Lauer in Cahyono 2001). Different from Toulmin who talks
only about logic, Aristotle realizes that logic alone is not sufficient to
persuade an audience. To convince, we must also gain credibility or trust from
our listeners or readers. So, we must be perceived as honest, fair, and responsive
to moral obligations. A logical argument appeals to mind, using evidence,
reasons, and examples to support a claim or proposition. Ethical appeals are
designed to strike a responsive chord in the minds of the readers, entreating them
to do what is right, good, fair, and best. Then, emotional appeals stir the feelings
of readers with figurative language, connotation, and anecdote. More detail
explanation about three kinds of appeals will be discussed in Chapter II.
Several researchers have
undertaken the study on arguments applying different method and theory. Connor
& Lauer in Cahyono (2001), for example, found that writing persuasion is
not an easy task even for students whose native language is English. In
addition, Connor and Lauer use three measures to evaluate persuasive essays
written by students across cultural backgrounds. The three measures were the
superstructure of argument, the Toulmin model of informal reasoning and the
persuasive appeals. The objects of their study were persuasive essays written by 16-year-old students from
the United States, England, and New Zealand. One hundred and fifty compositions
were randomly selected from the collection of essays of the International
Association for Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Then, the essays
were evaluated by three raters who had experience in teaching and evaluating
writing.
Safnil (2002) found that a text
of khotbah (sermon) consisted of at least four parts: opening remark,
introduction, body and closure. Each part was composed of several moves and
each move was characterized by the use of various rhetorical functions and
specific lexical items. The text was also characterized by a heavy use of
quotation from Hadist and Alquran as a strategy for effective argument and persuasion
used by the Khotib.
This study examines the way of
arguments used by Bishop Jose R.
Hernandez in the text of sermons
using Toulmin’s and Aristotle’s model. This study continues what the previous
researchers (Connor and Lauer, 1988 in Cahyono 2001; and Safnil, 2002) have
done in studying argument. Yet, the present study has some differences from the
results of previous study. First, the objects of this study are the sermons by
Bishop Jose R. Hernandez. This is different from the objects of the previous
researchers in which their objects are student’s persuasive essays and khotbah
or sermon by Zarkasyi. Second, this study will focus only on the way of
argument by using Toulmin’s and Aristotle’s model whereas the previous
researchers did not focus their study on the way of argument by using those two
models but applying rhetorical structure and three measures of linguistic,
rhetorical and communication-oriented perspectives.
This study intends to observe,
identify, and prove the way of arguments that are used by Bishop Jose R.
Hernandez in the text of sermons. This study is important because of several
reasons. First, sermon is an example of religious genre that is used to
transfer religious knowledge from the speaker to the listeners.
To convince the listeners, the
speaker must know the way to construct an effective argument. Second, sermon is
an essential activity used to advice people, to convey a commandment of God,
and to make people to be better.
1.2. Problems of the Study This
research is conducted to answer the following questions: 1. What are the elements of Toulmin model used
by Bishop Jose R.
Hernandez in his sermons? 2. What are three kinds of appeals used by
Bishop Jose R. Hernandez in the text of sermons? 1.3. Objectives of the Study In
conjunction with the research problems, this study aims: 1. to identify the elements of Toulmin model
used by Bishop Jose R.
Hernandez in the text of sermons,
and 2. to know how three kinds of
appeals used in Bishop Jose R. Hernandez’s sermons.
1.4. Significances of the Study The findings of this study will provide useful
contribution for English students who are learning how to make a convincing
argument by using various ways of written language, such as article, essay, and
thesis; and spoken language such as speech and sermon by using Toulmin’s and
Aristotle’s theory depending on the audience who are faced by them, For English
lecturers, it is hoped to provide data in which making an argument should be
based on the needs. They can make a good argument by using logical, emotional,
and ethical appeal. When it is considered enough to only give claim, data and
warrant, it is unnecessary to give other elements of argument. So, it depends
on the audience who are faced; then, the results of this study is also expected
to provide information for language users who want to be able to make a strong
argument for convincing or persuading people; and the last, it can be used as a
reference for the next researcher who will make a study in the area of argument. 1.5.
Scope and Limitation This study focuses on the way of argument used by Bishop
Jose R.
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